Sleepless nights and too much stress do affect our lives. Our biological clock acts abnormally and that’s not natural. We sleep at night and wake up during day. Ask anyone and the answer goes; ‘We need to sleep at least 8 hours a day’. But do we really do that? Some says ‘Yes’ and most will say ‘No’. Employees of different organizations are so stressed with their daily schedules that some sleep with their eyes open. We are biologically designed to spend one third of our lives asleep. But many are just too busy to sleep. These hectic lifestyles have made the corporate to wake up to the sleep deficit of their employees who work for long hours.There can be various types of sleep disorders. They are given below:

a) Insomnia:

It is the inability to sleep. Generally, it is the problem to stay asleep. The symptoms include frequent awakenings, or waking up and finding that one is unable to sleep. It happens mostly due to worry or depression. Hence the easiest way to treat it is to remove depression from ones life. Always think positive and stay infront of bright light. A room well lighted gives you good positive thoughts and enhances your good mood. However, if your difficulty in sleeping has occurred for more than a month and is interfering with your daily functions, it is time to seek help from a professional. Treatment can be as simple as educating yourself on the reasons behind your insomnia.

b) Narcolepsy:

It is a sleep disorder causing excessive daytime sleepiness and, in many cases, sleeps attacks during waking hours.

c) Sleep Apnea:

Sleep Apnea is defined as the cessation of breathing during sleep.

d) Fibromyalgia:

People suffering from fibromyalgia suffer from overwhelming daytime fatigue despite an adequate amount of sleep and the presence of numerous painful tender points in the back hips, thighs and neck. Some exercise increases the phenomenon. Unfortunately, there is no specific diagnostic test for fibromyalgia. Instead, go from doctor to doctor in search of a diagnosis and often receive treatments directed at their individual symptoms. Most patients with fibromyalgia will concede that on those rare nights when they obtain a good night of sleep they feel significantly better, more alert and have a reduction in pain and discomfort.

e) Restless Legs Syndrome:

It is a movement disorder that causes uncomfortable sensations in the legs. These sensations typically are worse during periods of rest, especially just before sleeping at night, but they may happen during daytime periods of inactivity, such as watching a movie, attending a long business meeting or flying in a plane. Whenever the discomfort of Restless Legs Syndrome occurs, it is usually accompanied by an overwhelming urge to move the legs and this movement may relieve leg discomfort temporarily. During night, people suffering from these symptoms make it difficult to fall asleep. As a result, insomnia happens. The cause of RLS remains unknown. However, evidence suggests that there is dysfunction in dopamine pathways in the brain. It may also be linked to certain types of iron deficiency.

What the Research Says About Sleep Duration?

The first thing experts will tell you about sleep is that there is no "magic number." Not only do different age groups need different amounts of sleep, but sleep needs are also individual. Just like any other characteristics you are born with, the amount of sleep you need to function best may be different for you than for someone who is of the same age and gender. While you may be at your absolute best sleeping seven hours a night, someone else may clearly need nine hours to have a happy, productive life. In fact, a 2005 study confirmed the fact that sleep needs vary across populations, and the study calls for further research to identify traits within genes that may provide a "map" to explain how sleep needs differ among individuals.

Though the actual amount of sleep is under research, but a minimum amount of 7-8 hours of sleep is necessary. Too less sleep can inhibit your productivity and have negative effect on your memory i.e your ability to remember and consolidate information and lack of sleep can also lead to serious health consequences and can seriously jeopardize your safety.

Sleep disturbance can lead to:

* Increased risk of motor vehicle accidents

* Increase in body mass index – a greater likelihood of obesity due to an increased appetite caused by sleep deprivation

* Increased risk of diabetes and heart problems

* Increased risk for psychiatric conditions including depression and substance abuse

* Decreased ability to pay attention, react to signals or remember new information

Hence, sleep well and don’t compromise on your sleep time. Stay healthy and increase your ability to cope up with your day to day challenges successfully.

Thanks for taking your time and reading this post. If there is any mistake in the above data, please let me know at our E-mail address:   admin@mainaksworld.com  or    mainaksworld@yahoo.com

MAINAKSWORLD has a new logo. The particular logo is designed by Mr. Suman Bajpeyi (Graphic Designer and Photographer). This is a voluntary work on his part. Please put a comment, if your time permits.

---- Mr. Mainak Mazumder

      Environmentalist (Double Gold Medallist in Masters) and Specialist in Disaster Management

      Founder of the Disaster Management and Climate Change Website:

      www.mainaksworld.com

Relief and Discrimination:

In any emergency, the response by Governments and Aid organizations can only said to be successful when it reaches everyone in need. But in disaster zones worldwide, despite the best efforts of many, a great need remains.

The main things that happen in the disaster areas are:

1)       Importance shifting to other emergent conflict points.                     

2)       There is a clear lack of dialogue during the distribution of relief as a result there is discrimination based on the reasons of sex, ethnicity, religion etc.

3)      The people of above sixty and disabled have difficulties in getting relief and plans should be made to help them out. The older persons and the disabled may find it difficult to travel to distribution sites and often do not have strength to carry the goods back to their shelters. This is the case, when the sites are located high above due to some security reasons. Mobility is also a big problem for these people, where flooding is regular. According to United Nations, the age of the older person is more than 60 years or over.

The elderly are often deemed helpless. When the Iranian city of Bam was destroyed by an earthquake in December 2003, killing over 26,000 people, disaster response experts were helped by local elderly men of influence who organized community responses across the city.

When relief material was distributed following the Indian Ocean Tsunami, An older people stood alone in the remains of his thatched roof and refused to join for collection of relief for him. Asked why he did not join in and he shook his head and said that’ it’s of no use. I’ve been pushed out before and have fallen on the ground. I know I’ll get nothing this time around, too.

These are the challenges which are faced in general:

1)      Use of untrained or unqualified personnel, lack of adherence to quality and accountability standards, as well as humanitarian principles and values and the non-utilization of local response capacities and skills.

2)      Sometimes delayed entry of foreign relief workers or goods and equipment, lengthy procedures for gaining legal status to operate in the disaster-affected countries.

Special emphasis should be given to Women during a disaster. Because they are the persons, who are most vulnerable. So, whether disabled or not, young or old, of whatever colour or race, women remain the most vulnerable and discriminated category, whereas the first local response comes from women.  At Banda Aceh, over 70 % of Staff of local NGOs delivering relief in Banda Aceh were women.  There are instances where women were denied their rights to relief. Then there is violence against women at conflict areas. Alongside contraventions of women’s rights, disaster after disaster produces irrefutable evidence that with displacement- be it as a result of natural hazards or conflict- the risks of physical abuse to women and girls rises substantially. The nature of the discrimination varies but commonly includes sexual violence, exploitation and abuse, forced prostitution, domestic violence, trafficking, forced and early marriage and widow inheritance.

In general some disaster prone communities are also vulnerable to discrimination. This happens especially with some disaster prone communities, groups, households and individuals. A disaster can reinforce various forms of discrimination. May it be social or may it be political or may it be racial. But the fact lies that we kill our humanity and our very essence of being humans and act in a different manner.

Another challenge, which is faced by the agencies are lack of continuous focus on the affected areas. This is due to the fact that when a disaster happens, in general the Media of the World focuses its attention to it. But at times, when things almost are half done, a different quite similar type of incidence occurs in some other part of the World and Journalists based there are given marching orders. This does hamper the development and the aid work, which was conducted in the area. Not only the agencies loses there focus but the obvious question that arises is that the Job/task remains half done. Later, we again bring some rehabilitation project into the area and that again involves lots of money. In the mean time, the persons involved in the first task loses there attention and thus lot of motivation is required for the new project officers to conduct the task. This is from my personal experience. Hence Journalists should be on board on disaster relief committees.

How to meet this challenge?

We have every reason to see that this is really a great challenge, which need to be addressed. We have to take some time and think on these lines. So, any international organizations should have separate regions and separate force ready to tackle the issues.

The international community needs to agree on clear definitions of all potential minority groups to prevent opposing interpretations and to ensure a common understanding of the vulnerability of minorities. Aid agencies need to improve initial need assessments by sharing information learning from experience and developing indicators on the impacts of discrimination. Minority and vulnerable groups need to be supported and enabled to participate in the planning; design and implementation of all emergency and non-emergency programmes. Agencies need to advocate within communities to change existing negative attitudes towards minority and vulnerable groups.

It’s a tough task, but if these can be done then, we can move one step towards a sustainable world. Agencies need to advocate within communities to change existing negative attitudes towards minority and vulnerable groups. Government and Non-Governmental agencies must also identify and address obvious and hidden discrimination, within their organizations.

On the other hand disasters do not discriminate. They strike indiscriminately, affecting minorities and majorities alike. However, there are various impacts to discrimination. The vast desert and semi-desert region in northern Kenya is home to 3 million people – most of whom are pastoralists. By 2006, there has been drought in the region. In Wajir in north eastern Kenya, visiting journalists reported that many grazing cattle had died by March and that two-thirds of the people were dependent on food aid. The crippling drought was then followed by floods. The appalling infrastructure seriously hampered the food and medical aid distribution programme, as the only road to the worst affected area had reportedly been washed away. The United Nations now has sophisticated early warning system in place, based on factors such as expected rainfall and crop yield, which can forecast when critical food shortages are likely to arise in advance. Then the obvious question comes to one’s mind is that why the Government did not act in time. There may be many reasons but one may be due to the fact that Kenya’s political elite consider or regard the pastoralist way of life as an anachronism.  Often it is seen that geographically distant from the capital cities; pastoralists are also sidelined politically, lacking the influence to press their case in the corridors of power.

Now with the effect of climate change felt in most parts of the world, we have a problem in the desert areas of Africa. It is also clear that the long term impact can be catastrophic. Hence, the more we go on neglecting these issues; we are going to make our fellow brother’s and sisters’ more and more dependent to disaster relief assistance. Not only that there are evidence of caste based discrimination in some parts of the World. After the Indian Ocean Tsunami, ‘Dalits’ who are treated as ‘untouchables’ in the Hindu caste system, were forbidden by other castes from drinking water from UNICEF water tanks because sharing with Dalits would, in their view pollute the water. So, discrimination can be deep rooted, not just for operational relief work but also for recovery and further rehabilitation work.

So, what could lead to a better relief?

a)      The donor agency should see and include minority peoples in the team. Ideally the ratio of minority peoples in the organization should equal the ratio of minority peoples among the public.

b)      Educate minority peoples with the aim of developing community resilience as well as obtaining professionals from the communities.

c)      Be aware of discrimination against the minorities in humanitarian work, by self examination as well as through consultations with people from the community and human rights specialists.

d)      Participate in advocacy in domestic, regional and international forums. Humanitarian organizations can also play a vital role in human rights advocacy.

e)      Develop indicators on the impact of discrimination against minorities in disaster management with the co-operation of human rights.

         Now the donors and the funding agencies should look into these aspects:

a)      Put more value on the issue of discrimination in humanitarian operations. Disaster Relief and discrimination are inseparable issues.

b)      Examine the possibility of introducing special measures for minority groups, particularly those who do not have access to basic materials.

c)      Understand the vulnerability of minorities, especially those who are prone to being affected by disasters. If the region has a history of disasters, then there is an absolute need for disaster preparedness.

Recently when I visited Assam State, India, I found that the State Red Cross Branch, under Indian Red Cross Society have built orphanages out of their own resources. Kids in the age of 1-3 years are their occupants at ‘Sishu Gram’ (Sishu in English means Children and Gram in English means Village).

Recent floods have washed out everything. The donor attention should also focus into these aspects while funding for any program. Disasters bring along with them lots of trauma and pain. Especially the Children are the most affected. They are the living dead. A small contribution for their education and care in good shelters can make wonders. It’s not an emotional statement, but a fact which is hard to ignore.

Media:

In a disaster, it is common to see images of children, often vulnerable, unwell, used by humanitarian agencies to generate compassion and funds. While the images can create the desired effect with donors, children’s protection and special needs are rarely incorporated within budget lines and programmes, resources are not prioritized and there is a lack of clear strategies to support and protect children.

Children are too often used to generate support, but they do not always enjoy the benefits.

So, what can be done?

Prioritize prevention of discrimination and violence against children. This means clear budget lines for prevention programmes and services.

There is also a need to enhance the capacity of all humanitarian personnel through education on children’s rights.

Create accessible, safe and child-friendly reporting systems and services. This includes safe, well-publicized, confidential and accessible mechanisms for children, their caregivers and others to prevent and report violence against children.

Help to improve collaboration between humanitarian agencies. This includes developing clear systems and standards to prevent and respond to all forms of violence against children at all stages of a disaster – preparedness, response and recovery. Children don’t get the support they need.

Hence, separate funds should be allocated solely for the purpose of children. Community Recovery Committees – a diverse group including different ethnicities, backgrounds and genders that are well trained, with adequate resources and able to communicate with the formal humanitarian system- can greatly assist equitable assistance. An oversight mechanism to ensure that discrimination against poor and neglected groups is minimized in the committees is needed and their assessments have to be cross-checked.

 I do believe that a little attention to the above mentioned problems and its solutions can help us to create a Safer World for us as well as for our future generations.

This is one of the post, which I wrote after thinking a lot. I faced the situations. It is heart-rending in a disaster area. One is bound to be in tears. I am not emotional, but what is stated above is true fact. Please put a comment, if your time permits. I will be glad to see your support on the above issue. Lets together join hands and create a Safer, Stronger, Greener and a Disaster Free World for us as well as for our future generations.

Thanks a lot for reading. 

------  Mr. Mainak Mazumder

Environmentalist (Double Gold Medalists in Masters)

Specialist in Disaster Management

(Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing)

Founder of the website on Disaster Management: MAINAKSWORLD

World Wide Website Address:  www.mainaksworld.com 

Space Technology plays a very important role in Disaster Management. Without this a proper management of disasters is not possible. Disaster Mitigation and Space technology communities work together in developing effective and accurate methods for prevention, preparedness and relief measures. Disaster Prevention is a long term, which can best be studied with the help of satellite monitoring of various relevant factors, such as, changing land use, temperature etc. Disaster Preparedness focuses on warning and forecasts impending disaster and often entails processes, which are quite dynamic. In general, Disaster relief occurs after (and sometimes during) the emergency. An important aspect in terms of satellite monitoring involves assessment of the damage incurred during the disaster. Satellite technology can also help in identifying escape routes and locations for storage of temporary housing.

Remote Sensing or Earth Observation System (EOS) and GIS are among many tools available to disaster management professionals today; making the effective project planning very much and more accurate now than ever before. There are many types of sensors for the purpose of observing natural hazards, the variety of spectral bands in VIS (visible), NIR (near infrared), IR (infrared), SWIR (short wave infrared), TIR (thermal infrared) and SAR (Syntehtic Aperture Radar) provide adequate spectral coverage and allow computer enhancement of the data for this purpose. Experts try to monitor the situation, stimulate the comlicated natural phenomenon as accurately as possible so as to come up with better prediction models, suggest appropriate contingency plans and prepare spatial databases. From the inherent characteristics, namely, spatial continuity, uniform accuracy and precision, multi-temporal coverage and complete coverage regardless of site location, the remote sensed data can be used very effectively, for:

a) Quickly assessing severity and impact of damage due to flooding, earthquakes, oil spills and other disasters;
b)  Planning efficient escape routes from coastal areas during hurricane season;
c)  Charting quickest routes for ambulances to reach victims;
d)  Locating places for shelter for victims or refugees;
e)  Calculating population density in disaster prone areas;
f)   Rapidly identfying hardest-hit disaster areas in order to provide early warning of potential disasters;
g)   Pre-disaster assessments to facilitate planning for timely evacuation and recovery operations during a crisis.
h)  Monitoring reconstruction or rehabilitation after a major disaster.
i)   Developing maintaining or updating accurate base maps.

Remote Sensing have added new techniques which can be used for various applications in the field of disaster management. Names of a few agencies that receive/distribute data are give below:

a)  RadarStat International (RSI), Canada
b)  Canada Center for Remote Sensing, Canada
c)  Center for Remote Sensing and Processing (CRISP), Singapore;
d)  National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), India
e)  Space Imaging, USA;
f)   SPOT Imaging, France; and
g)  EROS Data Center (EDC), USA;

Then there are different types of satellites, which are used for remote sensing. A few are:

a) RADARSAT satellites
b) LANDSAT Series
c) NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
d) SPOT  series
e) MOS (Marine Observation Satellite)
f) JERS-1 (Japan Earth Resources Satellite)
g) IRS (Indian Remote Sensing Satellites)
h) IKONOS satellite

Digital Globe launched a low altitude (450 Km) satellite, Quick Bird, on October 18, 2001 opening a new commercial channel with highest publicity available resolution. The Satellite has 61 cm panchromatic and 2.44 m multipectral sensors. Apart from these there are different other types of satellites, whose data if effectively used then , we can move step closer in creation of a Disaster Free World.

Thanks for taking your time and reading this post. Kindly visit the disaster management website:

www.mainaksworld.com

--- Regards,

     Mr. Mainak Mazumder

     Founder of MAINAKSWORLD

     Environmentalist (Double Gold Medallist) and Specialist in Disaster Management (Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems)

      E-mail:   admin@mainaksworld.com  or   mainaksworld@yahoo.com

BE SAFE IN 2008 AND MAKE A DISASTER FREE WORLD: HAPPY NEW YEAR

The beginning of the New Year provides us an opportunity to reflect on the past and make resolutions to fulfill new goals in the coming year.

The recent devastating hurricane at Bangladesh, earthquake at Indonesia, fires in California and other national and international disasters such as Hurricane Katrina and the tsunami in Southeast Asia remind us that disaster can come at any time and in any form. As the Founder of MAINAKSWORLD, I know that there is much more work to do in disaster preparation, especially with the added threat of human-induced disasters. I am also keenly aware that even the most prepared Government response will not be enough if citizens have not prepared themselves for times of emergency.

Let’s take an example, regardless of how a flood occurs; the rule for being safe is simple — head for higher ground and stay away from flood waters. Even a shallow depth of fast-moving flood water produces more force than most people imagine. The most dangerous thing one does is to try walking, swimming or driving through floodwaters. Two feet of water is enough to carry away most automobiles. Even 6 inches of swiftly moving water can sweep you off your feet.

So, Lets learn the ways to save oneself and share this useful life saving knowledge with your near and dear ones. Let’s all join hands and create a Safer, Stronger, Greener and a Disaster Free World.

I want to thank all of my readers, my well wishers in this New Year, whose wishes have helped me to move forward with my dream of creation of a disaster free world. Thank you so much for being with me always.

HAPPY NEW YEAR 2008.

Regards,

Mr. Mainak Mazumder

Environmentalist and Specialist in Disaster Management

(Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing)

Founder of the website on disaster management: MAINAKSWORLD

World Wide Web address:  www.mainaksworld.com  

Our E-mail:     admin@mainaksworld.com

Here is an example, which I want to share with you in this New Year:

Transportation is so basic that many of us overlook its overwhelming importance in our daily lives. Practically everything used in our homes, offices or schools across Tennessee (United States of America) - from furniture to food items to clothing - requires a large and complex transportation network which is why keeping Tennessee moving is the primary goal of the Department of Transportation.

In the winter, transportation maintenance crews sometimes get up at 3 a.m., or may stay out all night, keeping roads clear of snow and ice. In the spring and summer, they stay busy filling potholes, cutting grass and picking up litter. These functions all coincide with the department's mission to plan, implement, maintain and manage an integrated transportation system for the movement of people and products, with emphasis on quality, safety, efficiency and the environment.

Today, Tennessee's road system stretches 87,259 miles, enough to circle the world more than three times. Of that figure, 13, 752 miles are on the state-maintained highway system, representing 16 percent of the total highway miles within our state and carrying 72 percent of the traffic. Included in the state highway system are 1,074 miles of interstate highways. Although the interstate system makes up just over one percent of the total highway mileage, it carries one quarter of all the traffic in Tennessee.

Experience has shown that communication and coordination are the keys to a successful emergency response. With this in mind, in December, TDOT invited members of the Tennessee Emergency Management Agency (TEMA), the Tennessee Highway Patrol and the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation to join them in a winter weather training exercise. As everyone have seen many times, a serious blast of winter weather can lead to major power outages and can paralyze the transportation network. During a major winter storm, it is important for all responding agencies to coordinate and work together for the best possible response. By assembling these key agencies for our first winter weather drill, each organization is able to better understand individual responsibilities and how they can work

TEMA, of course, is the lead agency in responding to emergencies in Tennessee. TDOT employs three primary Emergency Service Coordinators (ESC), one of whom is embedded at TEMA headquarters, in addition to their team of regional Emergency Services Liaisons who work with the TEMA regional offices. These employees, as well as TDOT's Public Information Officer and four Community Relations Officers, are all trained in the National Incident Management System. Keeping the lines of communication open is clearly critical in emergency situations.

During a major disaster, TDOT will touch almost every aspect of the response, including search and rescue, evacuation, law enforcement, debris management, and health services. Their primary responsibility is to ensure that Tennessee's transportation infrastructure is fully operational as quickly as possible. This includes not just highways, but also airports, rivers and ports, and railroads. TDOT coordinate transportation resources, such as buses, trains, aircraft and watercraft, to assist in the movement of evacuees and critical supplies, as well as emergency responders themselves. In addition, TDOT work with a number of outside entities, including Federal Express, Civil Air Patrol, US Army Corps of Engineers and the US Coast Guard, who can provide specific resources in reconnaissance or response missions. These are but a few of our areas of responsibility in the event of a disaster, but they do illustrate the broad role TDOT plays in any response.

Kyoto and its Features (Climate Change):

Kyoto Protocol has been signed long back. Long negotiations and reservations, it was signed by almost 174 nations. Recent Bali Conference on Climate Change also spoke about Kyoto. Here is just a summary of what the Kyoto look like when it was first placed at United Nations.                 

The Protocol's major feature is that it has mandatory targets on greenhouse-gas emissions for the world's leading economies which have accepted it. These targets range from -8 per cent to +10 per cent of the countries' individual 1990 emissions levels "with a view to reducing their overall emissions of such gases by at least 5 per cent below existing 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012." In almost all cases -- even those set at +10 per cent of 1990 levels -- the limits call for significant reductions in currently projected emissions. Future mandatory targets are expected to be established for "commitment periods" after 2012. These are to be negotiated well in advance of the periods concerned.

Commitments under the Protocol vary from nation to nation. The overall 5 per cent target for developed countries is to be met through cuts (from 1990 levels) of 8 per cent in the European Union (EU[15]), Switzerland, and most Central and East European states; 6 per cent in Canada; 7 per cent in the United States (although the US has since withdrawn its support for the Protocol); and 6 per cent in Hungary, Japan, and Poland. New Zealand, Russia, and Ukraine are to stabilize their emissions, while Norway may increase emissions by up to 1 per cent, Australia by up to 8 per cent (subsequently withdrew its support for the Protocol), and Iceland by 10 per cent.

Looking at Kyoto Protocol (11^th December, 1997):

The Article 2 of the protocol states that achieving its quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments under Article 3 of the Kyoto Protocol, in order to promote sustainable development, shall: Implement and/or further elaborate policies and measures in accordance with its national circumstances, such as:

i)                     Enhancement of energy efficiency in relevant sectors of the national economy;

ii)                   Protection and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, taking into account its commitments under relevant environmental agreements; promotion of sustainable forest management practices, afforestation and reforestation.

iii)                  Promotion of sustainable forms of agriculture in light of climate change considerations;

iv)                  Research on and promotion, development and increased use of, new and Renewal forms of energy of carbon dioxide sequestration technologies and of advanced and innovative environmentally sound technologies;

v)                   Progressive reduction or phasing out of market imperfections, fiscal incentives, tax and duty exemptions and subsidies in all green house gas emitting sectors that run counter to the objective of the convention and application of market instruments.

vi)                  Encouragement of appropriate reforms in relevant sectors aimed at promoting policies and measures which limit or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol.

vii)                Limitation and/or reduction of methane emissions through recovery and use in waste management, as well as in the production, transport and distribution of energy.

To this effect the countries should take steps to share their experience and exchange information on such policies and measures, including developing ways of improving their compatibility, transparency and effectiveness. The conference of the countries serving as the meeting of the Parties to this protocol shall, at its first session or as soon as practicable thereafter, consider ways to facilitate such co-operation, taking into account all relevant information.

It was also stated that the parties should implement policies and measures under Article 2 of the Kyoto Protocol in such a way to minimize adverse effects, including the adverse effects of climate change, effects on international trade and social, environmental and economic impacts on other parties, especially developing countries. The Kyoto Protocol also states that the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, if it decides that it would be beneficial to coordinate any of the policies and measures in paragraph 1 (a) above, taking into account different national circumstances and potential effects, shall consider ways and means to elaborate the coordination of such policies and measures.

The Article 3 of the Kyoto Protocol States that the Parties included in Annex I shall, individually or jointly, ensure that their aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions of the green house gases listed in Annex A, do not exceed their assigned amounts, calculated pursuant to their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments inscribed in Annex B and in accordance with the provisions of this Article, with a view to reducing their overall emissions of such gases by at least 5 per cent below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012.

Annex A

Greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Methane (CH₄), Nitrous oxide (N₂O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), Sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆) ,

Sectors/source categories

Energy

Fuel combustion

Energy industries, Manufacturing industries and construction, Transport, Other sectors, other

Fugitive emissions from fuels

Solid fuels, Oil and natural gas, Other Industrial processes, Mineral products, Chemical industry, metal, production, other

Production

Production of halocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride, Consumption of halocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride, other

Solvent and other product use

Agriculture

Enteric fermentation, Manure management, Rice cultivation, Agricultural soils, Prescribed burning of savannas, Field burning of agricultural residues, other

Waste

Solid waste disposal on land, Wastewater handling, Waste incineration, other

Prior to the first session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, each Party included in Annex I shall provide, for consideration by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, data to establish its level of carbon stocks in 1990 and to enable an estimate to be made of its changes in carbon stocks in subsequent years. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, at its first session or as soon as practicable thereafter, decide upon modalities, rules and guidelines as to how, and which, additional human-induced activities related to changes in greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks in the agricultural soils and the land-use change and forestry categories shall be added to, or subtracted from, the assigned amounts for Parties included in Annex I, taking into account uncertainties, transparency in reporting, verifiability, the methodological work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the advice provided by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice in accordance with Article 5 and the decisions of the Conference of the Parties. Such a decision shall apply in the second and subsequent commitment periods. A Party may choose to apply such a decision on these additional human-induced activities for its first commitment period, provided that these activities have taken place since 1990.

The article 4 also states that any Parties included in Annex I that have reached an agreement to fulfil their commitments under Article 3 jointly, shall be deemed to have met those commitments provided that their total combined aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions of the greenhouse gases listed in Annex A do not exceed their assigned amounts calculated pursuant to their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments inscribed in Annex B and in accordance with the provisions of Article 3. The respective emission level allocated to each of the Parties to the agreement shall be set out in that agreement.

The Parties to any such agreement shall notify the secretariat of the terms of the agreement on the date of deposit of their instruments of ratification, acceptance or approval of this Protocol, or accession thereto. The secretariat shall in turn inform the Parties and signatories to the Convention of the terms of the agreement.

If Parties acting jointly do so in the framework of, and together with, a regional economic integration organization which is itself a Party to this Protocol, each member State of that regional economic integration organization individually, and together with the regional economic integration organization acting in accordance with Article 24, shall, in the event of failure to achieve the total combined level of emission reductions, be responsible for its level of emissions as notified in accordance with this Article.

The Article 5 states that each Party included in Annex I shall have in place, no later than one year prior to the start of the first commitment period, a national system for the estimation of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Guidelines for such national systems, which shall incorporate the methodologies specified in paragraph 2 below, shall be decided upon by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol at its first session.

Methodologies for estimating anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol shall be those accepted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties at its third session. Where such methodologies are not used, appropriate adjustments shall be applied according to methodologies agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol at its first session. Based on the work of, inter alia, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and advice provided by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall regularly review and, as appropriate, revise such methodologies and adjustments, taking fully into account any relevant decisions by the Conference of the Parties. Any revision to methodologies or adjustments shall be used only for the purposes of ascertaining compliance with commitments under Article 3 in respect of any commitment period adopted subsequent to that revision.

The global warming potentials used to calculate the carbon dioxide equivalence of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases listed in Annex A shall be those accepted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties at its third session. Based on the work of, inter alia, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and advice provided by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall regularly review and, as appropriate, revise the global warming potential of each such greenhouse gas, taking fully into account any relevant decisions by the Conference of the Parties. Any revision to a global warming potential shall apply only to commitments under Article 3 in respect of any commitment period adopted subsequent to that revision.

The Article 8 states that The information submitted under Article 7 by each Party included in Annex I shall be reviewed by expert review teams pursuant to the relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties and in accordance with guidelines adopted for this purpose by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol under paragraph 4 below. The information submitted under Article 7, paragraph 1, by each Party included in Annex I shall be reviewed as part of the annual compilation and accounting of emissions inventories and assigned amounts. Additionally, the information submitted under Article 7, paragraph 2, by each Party included in Annex I shall be reviewed as part of the review of communications.

The review process shall provide a thorough and comprehensive technical assessment of all aspects of the implementation by a Party of this Protocol. The expert review teams shall prepare a report to the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, assessing the implementation of the commitments of the Party and identifying any potential problems in, and factors influencing, the fulfillment of commitments. Such reports shall be circulated by the secretariat to all Parties to the Convention. The secretariat shall list those questions of implementation indicated in such reports for further consideration by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol.

The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall adopt at its first session, and review periodically thereafter, guidelines for the review of implementation of this Protocol by expert review teams taking into account the relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties.

The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall periodically review this Protocol in the light of the best available scientific information and assessments on climate change and its impacts, as well as relevant technical, social and economic information. Such reviews shall be coordinated with pertinent reviews under the Convention, in particular those required by Article 4, paragraph 2(d), and Article 7, paragraph 2(a), of the Convention. Based on these reviews, the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall take appropriate action

All Parties, taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and their specific national and regional development priorities, objectives and circumstances, without introducing any new commitments for Parties not included in Annex I, but reaffirming existing commitments under Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention, and continuing to advance the implementation of these commitments in order to achieve sustainable development, taking into account Article 4, paragraphs 3, 5 and 7, of the Convention, shall:

The first review shall take place at the second session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol. Further reviews shall take place at regular intervals and in a timely manner. The Protocol also states that the parties should       formulate, implement, publish and regularly update national and, where appropriate, regional programmes containing measures to mitigate climate change and measures to facilitate adequate adaptation to climate change:

i) Such programmes would, inter alia, concern the energy, transport and industry sectors as well as agriculture, forestry and waste management. Furthermore, adaptation technologies and methods for improving spatial planning would improve adaptation to climate change; and

(ii) Parties included in Annex I shall submit information on action under this Protocol, including national programmes, in accordance with Article 7; and other Parties shall seek to include in their national communications, as appropriate, information on programmes which contain measures that the Party believes contribute to addressing climate change and its adverse impacts, including the abatement of increases in greenhouse gas emissions, and enhancement of and removals by sinks, capacity building and adaptation measures;

like cooperate in the promotion of effective modalities for the development, application and diffusion of, and take all practicable steps to promote, facilitate and finance, as appropriate, the transfer of, or access to, environmentally sound technologies, know-how, practices and processes pertinent to climate change, in particular to developing countries, including the formulation of policies and programmes for the effective transfer of environmentally sound technologies that are publicly owned or in the public domain and the creation of an enabling environment for the private sector, to promote and enhance the transfer of, and access to, environmentally sound technologies;

cooperate in scientific and technical research and promote the maintenance and the development of systematic observation systems and development of data archives to reduce uncertainties related to the climate system, the adverse impacts of climate change and the economic and social consequences of various response strategies, and promote the development and strengthening of endogenous capacities and capabilities to participate in international and intergovernmental efforts, programmes and networks on research and systematic observation, taking into account Article 5 of the Convention;

cooperate in and promote at the international level, and, where appropriate, using existing bodies, the development and implementation of education and training programmes, including the strengthening of national capacity building, in particular human and institutional capacities and the exchange or secondment of personnel to train experts in this field, in particular for developing countries, and facilitate at the national level public awareness of, and public access to information on, climate change. Suitable modalities should be developed to implement these activities through the relevant bodies of the Convention, taking into account Article 6 of the Convention;

Its also stated that in the context of the implementation of Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention, in accordance with the provisions of Article 4, paragraph 3, and Article 11 of the Convention, and through the entity or entities entrusted with the operation of the financial mechanism of the Convention, the developed country Parties and other developed Parties included in Annex II to the Convention shall:

(a) Provide new and additional financial resources to meet the agreed full costs incurred by developing country Parties in advancing the implementation of existing commitments under Article 4, paragraph 1(a), of the Convention that are covered in Article 10, subparagraph (a); and

(b) Also provide such financial resources, including for the transfer of technology, needed by the developing country Parties to meet the agreed full incremental costs of advancing the implementation of existing commitments under Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention that are covered by Article 10 and that are agreed between a developing country Party and the international entity or entities referred to in Article 11 of the Convention, in accordance with that Article.

Article 27 of the Kyoto Protocol states the fact that at any time after three years from the date on which this Protocol has entered into force for a Party, that Party may withdraw from this Protocol by giving written notification to the Depositary.

Any such withdrawal shall take effect upon expiry of one year from the date of receipt by the Depositary of the notification of withdrawal, or on such later date as may be specified in the notification of withdrawal.

Any Party that withdraws from the Convention shall be considered as also having withdrawn from this Protocol.

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